| Extracto del fichero OCR | JROPEAM CYCLISTS' FEDERATION
CYCLING AND
URBAN AIR QUALITY
A study of European Experiences
RESPONSIBLE EDITOR
European Cyclists' Federation asbl
Rue Franklin 28
B-1000 Brussels
AUTHORS
Dr Guy Hitchcock & Michel Vedrenne
RICARDO-AEA
Gemini Building, Fermi Avenue, Harwell,
Oxon, 0X11 OQR, UK
www.ricardo-aea.com
Expert review by Prof. Dr Bas de Geus of Vrije Universiteit Brussel
CONTACT PERSON AT ECF
Benedicte Swennen
Urban Mobility Policy Officer
[email protected]
COVER PHOTO BY
Amsterdamize
November 2014
ECF gratefully acknowledges financial support from the European Commission.
The information and views set out in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official
opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their
behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein.
Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged.
CYCLING AND
URBAN AIR QUALITY
Á study of European Experiences
www.ecf.com
ABOUT THE EUROPEAN CYCLISTS' FEDERATION
ECF is the umbrella federation of bicycle users’ organizations in Europe and beyond. Our aim is to have more
people cycling more often and we target to double cycling by 2020 in Europe. To reach this goal we work with
our members and partners on putting cycling on the agenda at global, European, national and regional level.
4
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD_________________________________________________________________________________________ ó
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY________________________________________________________________________________ 7
INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________________________________ 8
MEASURES TO INCREASE CYCLING MODE SHARE__________________________________________________________ 9
i. measures aimed directly at increasing cycling 9
• Bike share schemes
• Cycling infrastructure
• Provision of trip-end facilities
• Integration of cycling in public transport networks
• Personalised travel information
2. measures aimed at reducing the demand of other transport modes 11
• Low emission zones
• Congestion charging
• Speed management: 30 km/h (20 mph) zones
• Car-free zones
• Parking rationing and charging
• Higher vehicle costs
3. Packages of measures and links with air quality policies 13
REVIEW OF CASE STUDIES_________________________________________________________________________________14
1. Antwerp 15
2. London .............................................................................................17
3. Nantes 19
4. Seville 21
5. Thessaloniki 23
6. Conclusions 25
IMPACT ASSESSMENT__________________________________________________________________________________26
1. Scenario definition 26
2. Study zones 27
3. Impacts of cycling on emission reductions 27
4. Impacts of emission reductions on local air quality 28
5. Impacts of improvements of local air quality on health 29
6. Conclusions 30
RECOMMENDATIONS___________________________________________________________31
BIBLIOGRAPHY _____________________________________________________________32
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
5
FOREWORD
Dear Reader,
Breathing clean air is one of the most important things for all of us. Working on our mission
‘More people cycling more often’, the European Cyclists’ Federation (ECF) supports all those who
work on the promotion of cycling and strive to achieve better air quality in our cities. This study
shows the potential effect of more cycling for cleaner air in our cities.
ECF’s main conclusion from this study is that investments in modal shift and getting more peo-
ple cycling more often, makes a real contribution to improve air quality. Although small, there is
actual and real decrease in air pollution from traffic which can be enhanced by its combination
with technical measures. However, cities need to be ambitious and strive for a radical trans-
formation of their urban transport system if they want to improve air quality. Air pollution is
still too high with moderate increase of cycling or a limited approach for small car-free areas.
Cyclists, pedestrians and other inhabitants do not pollute the air in the cities but they are suffer-
ing from bad air quality. At the same time, cycling along with good public transport and walking
facilities, is a key solution to maintain a good accessibility to green zones and car free areas in
cities.
A transformation of the transport system has to be pushed in all policies that have an impact
on the mobility choices of people - and air quality policy is one of them. ECF strongly recom-
mends international institutions, countries and cities to include modal shift and cycling as a
reliable measure to provide cleaner air in urban areas. I am sure that this study is useful for all
policy-makers, advocates and researchers on the local, national and international level for their
work on the transition of cities into healthier and more livable places.
Dr Bernhard Ensink,
ECF Secretary General
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Air pollution is a major issue of concern to the public and
politicians, with the focus of attention being on poor air quai
ity and the way it affects the quality of life in urban areas. It
is well recognised that road transport plays a significant part
in air pollution in urban environments, and thus contributes
to this public health issue.
To understand the potential role of cycling measures as part
of an approach to air quality management a selection of
five European cities were studied as case study examples.
The selected cities were Antwerp, London, Nantes, Seville
and Thessaloniki, all of which are recognised for positively
implementing cycling as a feasible alternative to private
motorisation, albeit to different extents. All of these cities,
except for Thessaloniki, explicitly mention the promotion and
development of cycling in their air quality plans. From the
review of the respective mode shares, cities with a known
and well-developed cycling infrastructure such as Antwerp
or Seville exhibited the highest increases in mode share with
respect to previous years and have the largest populations
of active cyclists. In this regard Seville expects to achieve a
reduction of 4 pg/m3 in the annual mean of N02 in 2020 due
to the implementation of a complete pack of traffic demand
management measures including cycling.
The final part of the study provided an illustrative assessment
of the impacts of cycling, in terms of mode shift from car
traffic, as a potential measure to improve urban air quality
levels (N02, PMio and black carbon) in three of the case study
cities (Antwerp, London and Thessaloniki). To accomplish this,
simulations were carried out with two hypothetical scenarios:
(i) a typical, moderate cycling investment scenario involving
an assumed 23% increase in cycling mode share (away from
private motorized transport) and (ii) a limited car-free scenar-
io involving the closure of one or two major roads in the re-
spective cities. The assessment showed that modal shift from
private motorisation to
cycling produced significant
reductions in the emissions
of NO , PM and black car-
bon. This varied from city
to city depending on the
local traffic situation. These
emission reductions in turn
resulted in improvements in
the air quality levels of the
studied zones in the cities.
The improvements again
varied from city to city as a
result of local conditions with for example much greater ben-
efits being seen in Antwerp than London. Also in two of the
three case studies the observed reductions were not enough
to achieve compliance with the European limit values.
The assessment of air quality impacts was complemented
with an analysis of health improvements brought about by
the reduction of ambient concentrations of particulates. This
assessment was made by estimating the disability adjusted
life years (DALY) metric for cardiopulmonary disease caused
by poor air quality levels. In all cases, the global disability
levels were reduced as a consequence of the improvements
produced by modal shift under the two modelled scenarios.
The main conclusion that can be drawn from this study is
that cycling measures can improve urban air quality levels as
part of a package of measures directed at reducing overall
road traffic. Although the extent of the improvement will vary
from city to city and across the city itself with our analysis
showing changes in N02 concentrations from zero to 12.6 pg/
m3 and changes in PMio concentrations from 0.3 pg/m3 to 1.4
pg/m3 at the studied monitoring locations. However, overall
the changes in London and Thessaloniki were not enough
to meet the European limit values. This suggests that mode
shift measures alone are unlikely to be sufficient to meet the
European air quality limit values in urban areas. Therefore, a
successful approach to combat air pollution is a combination
of both non-technical and technical measures: encourage a
modal shift, including the shift towards cycling, and reduce
emissions from the remaining traffic such as public transport
and delivery vehicles.
However, controlling the emissions from road transport, the
main source of air pollution in most urban areas, has not
been an easy task. This is because transport emissions are
influenced by many factors such as vehicle technology, fuel
type, vehicle size and driver behaviour. Technical measures
alone, in terms of technologies that directly reduce emission
from road vehicles, are insufficient to meet compliance with
urban air quality objectives. This has been highlighted by
the failure of vehicle Euro emission standards to produce
the reductions in emis-
sions expected in urban
areas. Therefore a more
demand-side-focused ap-
proach is needed to reduce
the impacts of transport,
such as air pollution, and
develop a more sustainable
transport system.
In line with this approach
cycling measures are now
present in the air quality
and mobility plans of numerous cities around the world. This
report sets out to understand in more detail the role that
cycling measures can have as part of a mode shift approach
to help improve air quality. In relation to this a set of relevant
measures directed at increasing cycling mode share were
investigated. These measures are classified as to whether
they were aimed directly at increasing cycling or aimed at re-
ducing the demand for private motorized transport. The most
representative examples of measures directed at increasing
cycling were the development of cycling infrastructure such
as bicycle share schemes, separated cycling lanes and tracks,
provision of trip-end facilities and integration of cycling with
urban public transport networks. As for those measures di-
rected at reducing the demand for car use, the most relevant
were congestion-charging schemes, low-emission zones,
parking rationing and increasing vehicle costs.
"There are still major challenges to human health
from poor air quality. We are still far from our
objective to achieve levels of air quality that do
not give rise to significant negative impacts on
human health and the environment. "
Janez Potocnik, European Commissioner for the Environment
(Potocnik, 201 3)
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 7
INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is one of the main environmental factors linked
to adverse health effects such as premature mortality and
preventable illness across Europe. The greatest impact on
human health is in urban areas, where air pollution levels are
at their highest. Transport is the most important source of
air pollution in European cities and as such, has a significant
role in improving air quality and public health (Stanley et al.,
2011).
The European Union has an air pollution regulatory frame-
work that seeks to reduce the burden of ambient air pollution
on human health, natural and managed ecosystems and the
built environment. The Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC)
and the 4th Daughter Directive (2004/107/EC) set limit, target
and threshold concentrations for a series of pollutants and
require Member States to assess and report compliance with
these environmental objectives on a regular basis (EEA, 2013;
Hitchcock et al., 2014).
Despite the fact that mitigation strategies and significant
reductions in emissions have been in focus for many years,
ambient concentrations of air pollutants lag clearly behind
this emission decreasing trend (Guerreiro et al., 2010). In
particular controlling the emissions from road transport,
the main source of air pollution in most urban areas, has
not been an easy task. This is because transport emissions
are influenced by many factors such as vehicle technology,
fuel type, vehicle size and power (Sundvor et al., 2012), and
most significantly the impact of the Euro vehicle emission
standards has been less than anticipated especially for diesel
vehicles (EEA, 2013; Hitchcock et al., 2014). Due to the lack of
success of direct technical measures in tackling this problem,
action has focused recently on a multidisciplinary approach
that covers different policy aspects such as promoting clean
fuels and vehicles, collective passenger transport, designing
demand and mobility management strategies, increasing traf-
fic safety and security, car-independent lifestyles and public
involvement.
This context has favoured the position of cycling as a cost-ef-
fective alternative to individual motorised transport among
environmental stakeholders due to the fact that bicycles
are zero-emission, low-carbon vehicles that are efficient in
terms of speed, cost and urban space (Bôrjesson and Elias-
son, 2012; Kiister, 2013). Additionally, over the last 10 years
cycling has been seen as an effective method for improving
a healthy lifestyle in developed countries (Steinbach et al.,
2011; Press-Kristensen, 2014). The combination of these two
factors has made cycling a constant policy option in urban air
quality plans, as witnessed in the Air Implementation Pilot
which followed urban policy making in 12 cities in Europe
during 15 months in 2012 (EEA, 2013). Other European-fund-
ed city planning programmes such as CIVITAS contemplate
cycling as an essential part of the multidisciplinary approach
that is necessary for improving urban air quality levels.
Despite this, there has been little study on the direct impact
of cycling measures on air quality as part of an integrated
approach to air quality management. The purpose of this re-
port therefore is to provide a consideration of the key aspects
that promote modal shift and that reinforce the position of
cycling as a cost-effective policy option for the improvement
of urban air quality levels and more importantly, for the com-
pliance with the air quality targets established by European
legislation.
8 RICARDO-AEA_______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
MEASURES TO INCREASE CYCLING MODE SHARE
Every city has a particular modal split, which is defined by
the number of trips that are made using a particular type of
transportation. This modal split is related to different aspects
such as city size, population, density, age, car ownership
schemes, income, households with children, public transport
fares, public transport service frequency, rain, trip distance
and land-use mix (Santos et al., 2013). Therefore the ECF
promotes the "Cycling as a System" concept to consider these
diverse city contexts (Ensink and Marhold, 2014).
Most factors that increase modal shift from private motorised
transport to cycling can be classified in two categories:
• Pull measures aimed directly at increasing cycling. This cat-
egory includes measures especially directed to encourage
users to change from their usual transport modes to cycling
exclusively. Any modal shifts produced by these factors will
result in an increase in the proportion of cyclists in the city.
• Push measures aimed at reducing the demand of other
transport modes. These factors correspond to measures
aimed to restrict the use of non-sustainable transport
modes (e.g. cars) but do not directly encourage a modal
shift towards a particular alternative. As a result, these
measures may not increase the proportion of cyclists.
Apart from these two categories, a host of broader contexts
are likely to have key influences in modal shifts. Examples of
these can be the public perception on road safety, national
energy policy, excessive reliance on fossil-fuels, cultural
aspects, etc.
The above described measures are non-technical measures
to improve urban air quality: focusing on structural and
behavioural changes, while technical measures are usually
end-of-pipe measures. However, both are well related since
non-technical measures can be used to support the uptake
of technical measures (for example, giving fiscal/economic
incentives to renew the car fleet).
1. MEASURES AIMED DIRECTLY AT
CYCLING
Bicycle share schemes
Bicycle (bike) share schemes have emerged as an innovative
approach in a number of cities in Europe, Asia and North
America, with over 700 programmes in operation around the
world (Meddin and DeMaio, 2014). The first bicycle share pro-
gramme was implemented in Amsterdam in 1965, being anon-
ymous and free of charge. This factor made the programme
fail soon after its launch, due to vandalism. An improved bike
sharing programme was implemented in Copenhagen in 1995
through the use of coin-deposit docking stations. This scheme
evolved by incorporating advanced information technologies
for bicycle reservations, pick-up, drop-off and tracking. In
1998, the city of Rennes (France) launched the first IT-based
programme (Vélo à la Carte) and in 2007, Paris launched Eu-
rope’s largest IT-based scheme with over 20,000 bicycles and
1,450 docking stations available every 300 meters (Vélib). The
emerging fourth generation systems have refined the IT-based
concept and seek seamless integration of bike sharing with
public transportation and other alternative modes, such as
taxis and car sharing (Shaheen and Guzman, 2011).
The main benefits of bike sharing are related to the reduction
of pollutants and GHG emissions due to the replacement of
trips made by cars. After the launch of Bicing in Barcelona
(Spain), the city’s bicycle modal split increased by 1% (from
0.75% to 1.76% in 2007) over a period of 2 years (from 2005
to 2007). Velo’v in Lyon (France) reported that bicycle use
reduced the automobile mode share by 7% in 2007.
Several studies have examined the motivating factors associ-
ated with bike share use in North America, China, the United
Kingdom and Australia (Fishman et al., 2014). Convenience
consistently emerges as the main motivating factor for bike
share use. The distance between home and closest docking
station is a factor directly associated with convenience and
this has been found to be a reliable predictor of bike share us-
age. A study in Montréal (Canada) reflected that living within
500 m of a docking station resulted in a threefold increase in
the use of bike share (Bachand-Marleau et al., 2012). Similar
findings were shown in London, where fun appeared to be an
additional key motivation for casual users (TfL, 2011).
TABLE 1. PREVIOUS TRANSPORTATION MODE REPORTED BY CURRENT BICYCLE SHARE USERS
City Private Car Public transport Walking New displacements Other
Barcelona 10% 51% 26% 0% 13%
Berlin 4% 26% 21% 3% 46%
Brussels 7% 60% 32% 0% 1%
London 0% 54% 39% 0% 7%
Lyon 7% 51% 37% 2% 4%
Paris 8% 65% 20% 0% 7%
Stuttgart 4% 20% 26% 16% 34%
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 9
There is an implicit assumption among stakeholders that the
implementation of bike share programmes will have a direct
impact on motor vehicle use. A recent study on the bike share
programmes in Melbourne, Brisbane, Washington D.C., Greater
London and Minneapolis/St. Paul showed that this is very
dependent on the city. Reductions in motor vehicle use due
to bike share were of approximately 90,000 km per annum in
Melbourne and Minneapolis/St. Paul and 243,291 km for Wash-
ington D.C. In Greater London however, motor vehicle use
increased 166,341 km per annum largely due to a low car mode
substitution rate (Fishman et al., 2014). A study carried out in
Barcelona showed that the bicycle sharing scheme of the city
(Bicing) produced an annual change in mortality of 0.03 from
road traffic incidents and 0.13 deaths from air pollution. Addi-
tionally, this study found that 12.28 deaths were avoided and
carbon dioxide emissions were reduced by approximately 9 Gg
when compared with car users (Rojas-Rueda et al., 2011).
A study with information from surveys about bicycle share
users carried out in London, Brussels, Berlin, Stuttgart, Paris,
Lyon, and Barcelona showed that private motorisation is
reduced by the implementation of a bicycle share scheme
(being as much as 10% in Barcelona). Additionally, other
transportation modes such as mopeds or motorcycles suf-
fered important reductions as a consequence of the bicycle
share scheme (46% in Berlin and 34% in Stuttgart). Current
bicycle sharers reported their previous usual transport to be
those shown in Table 1 (Zwerts, 2014).
Cycling infrastructure
Cycling infrastructure refers to the existence of segregated
lanes, bicycle parking slots as well as cycle storage facilities
at home, work or public transport stations. This infrastruc-
ture is not particularly related to a bicycle share scheme, but
rather directed to private cyclists.
There is a general perception among stakeholders that cre-
ating cycling infrastructure will increase modal shift (usually
referred to as the "build it and they'll come” principle) and
in most cases, this principle is true. However, other factors
might as well determine the success of a cycling infrastruc-
ture such as the location of facilities along usable commuting
routes, the overall network connectivity or the amount of
publicity and promotion (Douma and Cleaveland, 2008).
The importance of creating cycling infrastructure is related to
the public perception of cycling as risky. A survey carried out in
2010 among UK adults found that 86% selected cycling as the
mode most at risk of traffic accidents, as opposed to 2-7% for
other modes (Thornton et al., 2010). A similar study in Portland
(USA) revealed that there is significant potential for increasing
cycling with a safer infrastructure stating that 60% of the resi-
dents would cycle if safety was increased, 7% are enthused and
confident, less than 1% are strong and fearless, and a propor-
tion are not interested in cycling at all (33%) (Geller, 2012).
This clearly highlights the need of developing separate
cycling infrastructure to increase the perception of safety
among the public opinion (Goodman et al., 2014). Research
confirms that the type of bicycle infrastructure matters:
potential users prefer physically segregated bicycle paths to
curb lanes, bicycle lanes and roads without bicycle facilities
(Heinen et al., 2010).
The creation of new cycling infrastructure is usually directly
correlated to an increase in modal shift. A 2003 cross-sectional
study in the commuting behaviour of 43 cities in the United
States revealed that every additional mile of bike lanes per
square mile led to a 1 % increase in bicycle commuters (Dill
and Carr, 2003). A study carried out in Dublin in 2012 revealed
that the construction of segregated cycling lanes produced a
74.1% change in the opinion of residents on cycling safety, with
56.4% of the surveyed people actually considering shifting to
cycling due to these new infrastructures (Caulfield et al., 2012).
Similar findings were observed in Seville in 2010, where the
existence of the cycling infrastructure (120 km) produced a
global modal shift of 32% from former car users and 5.4%
from motorcycle users with a total spent budget of €35
million (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, 2010). This ultimately
produced a global increase in modal share of cycling in the
city from 0.5% in 2006 to 7% in 2013. In the city council of
Darlington (UK), the injection of €5.3 million in cycling infra-
structure (40 km) since 2004 produced a total increase in cy-
cle trips of 26-30% and changed cycling mode share from 1%
to almost 3% (5.1 trips per 100 people) (DCC, 2007; Sloman
et al., 2010). In Malmô, the construction of 410 km of bicycle
lanes in 2009 resulted in a total 20% increase in the number
of cycling trips and raising the cycling modal share from 20%
in 2003 to 22% in 2013, having spent a total budget of €40
million (ADVANCE, 2014; CIVITAS, 2014).
Provision of trip-end facilities
Apart from the development of the cycling infrastructure
itself, ancillary facilities are necessary for encouraging modal
shifts. The existence of proper and safe cycle parking and
storage facilities is likely to increase the degree of modal
shift in a city with cycling infrastructure. A study carried out
in the United States revealed that the existence of bicycle
parking facilities was the second priority after segregat-
ed lanes among surveyed users, lockers being the most
preferred (against exterior lockable or covered lockable facil-
ities) (Taylor and Mahmassani, 1996). A study in the Neth-
erlands showed that the existence of cycle storage facilities
nearby usual workplaces increase the number of cyclists, and
particularly, women cyclists (van der Kloof et al., 2014).
Integration of cycling in public transport net-
works
The current practises in the promotion of cycling as an
alternative mode of transport focus on its seamless integra-
tion with existing public transport networks (i.e. "bike-and-
ride”). The number of policy initiatives to promote the use
of bike-and-ride, the combined use of the bicycle and public
transport for one trip, has seen a considerable increase over
the last 10 years worldwide. Examples of these practises are
the design of bicycle routes to stations, the provision of bicy-
cle racks on buses, allowing bicycles on trains, bicycle lockers
and parking facilities at stations (1ST, 2010).
The integration of cycling in public transport commutes
is particularly interesting for reducing door-to-door travel
times, particularly in the trips between the transport station
and home or the work place. As a feeder mode, cycling is
substantially faster than walking and more flexible than
public transport, eliminating waiting and scheduling costs
10 RICARDO-AEA______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
(Martens, 2007). A comparison of travel times on 25 home-
to-work links in the Netherlands indicated that the travel
time ratio between public transport and private car can drop
from an average 1.43 to 1.25 hours if the bicycle is integrated
in the public transport commute (Martens, 2004).
A study carried out in 2006 in the Netherlands showed that
a substantial degree of integration of cycling in the public
transport networks is achieved by simply providing sufficient
and attractive bicycle parking facilities at public transport
stations (Gatersleben and Appleton, 2007). This same
experience demonstrated that bicycle lockers located at bus
stations were hardly used by passengers due to their cost and
the perceived low risks of theft and vandalism.
Cycling integration efforts are currently part of the transport
planning strategies of different cities in Europe. In the Flem-
ish region of Belgium, 22% of all trips to the station are made
by bicycle. In the Netherlands, 39% of all trips to the station
are made by bicycle and 10% of train passengers continue
their trips on this mode. In Denmark, 25% of train clients
use the bike to get the station and 9% in Sweden, yet in the
city of Malmô this number increases to 35%. In Copenhagen
(Denmark) and Berlin (Germany), bicycles are allowed in
trains and underground transport while in Dresden (Ger-
many), Strasbourg and Lille (France) bicycles are generally
allowed on trams (ECF, 2012).
Information and awareness campaigns
Information and public awareness campaigns are important
determinants in the success of policies directed towards cy-
cling. There is a need to develop a cycling culture and a criti-
cal mass of cyclists which makes further adoption more likely
(i.e. commuters are more likely to cycle if those around them
are already cycling). Information campaigns are destined to
increase the awareness of the general public on the existence
of cycling infrastructure and on other factors such as health
benefits, cost-effectiveness, etc.
According to Douma and Cleaveland (2009), the effectiveness
of cycling campaigns in US cities like Chicago or Orlando was
increased by awareness campaigns and bicycling advocacy.
These major campaigns advertised the presence of bike lanes
and created excitement about the new transportation option.
A similar case was observed in Mexico City’s, which despite
low cycling levels, quickly reached the capacity of its bike
sharing scheme of 30,000 members and now has a waiting list
to join (Shaheen and Guzman, 2011). Information campaigns
have fostered cycling in several German cities such as Berlin,
Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich. In Berlin, communication
efforts are less visible than infrastructure improvements while
in Frankfurt some communication efforts like the "bike & busi-
ness" campaign were noticeable despite the less important in-
frastructure improvements (Lanzendorf and Busch-Geertsma,
2014). The information and promotion campaign undertaken
by Munich cost €4 million and between 2009 and 2014 is ex-
pected to raise cycling modal share to 17% in 2014 (von Sassen
and Kofler, 2013). The UK cities of Peterborough and Worces-
ter invested in the period between 2004-2008 a substantial
part of the €8.1 and €5.3 million budgets in funding cycling
awareness campaigns that resulted in cycling modal shares of
17% and 16% (38% and 23% increase with respect to 2004)
respectively (Sloman et al., 2010).
Particularly important elements of cycling awareness cam-
paigns are cycling demonstration days (i.e. car-free days, traf-
fic-free paths, etc.). One of the principal aims of these days
is to encourage people to take up cycling for the first time or
to start cycling again, providing the opportunity for less ex-
perienced cyclists to gain the confidence, experience and fun
necessary to enable them to cycle more. Creating at least one
high quality traffic-free cycle route in every urban area drives
people to cycling again, enjoying the experience and convinc-
ing themselves that the bicycle is a valuable and appropriate
means of transport for everyday use (Jones, 2012).
One of the most relevant annual events that raise cycling
awareness in Europe is the European Mobility Week, which is
an annual campaign on sustainable urban mobility organised
by the European Commission. The aim of this campaign is
to encourage European local authorities to introduce and
promote sustainable transport options and to impulse modal
shift from private motorised transport among citizens. One of
the most important events that take place during this week
is the "In Town Without My Car" day, in which cities set aside
one or several areas solely for pedestrians, cyclists and public
transport (EC, 2014). An experiment conducted in Brussels
during Car Free Sunday (20th September 2009) revealed a
reduction in the local concentration of Black Carbon of 6 pg/
m3. This reduction lasted only during the hours in which car
circulation was restricted. Once normal circulation was re-es-
tablished, black carbon concentrations returned to their usual
levels (38 pg/m3) (Fierens, 2013).
Personalised travel information
In general, aggregate-level studies have found a positive
correlation between the investment in cycling infrastructure
(particularly lanes) and overall levels of bicycling. However,
there are still important knowledge gaps on individual-level
preferences, which in some cases have found a correlation
between cycling and proximity to separate paths, or that
cyclists go out of their way to use paths. A study carried
out in the Portland (United States) incorporating GPS data
collection revealed that cyclists prefer routes that reduce
exposure to motor vehicle traffic (Broach et al., 2012). It
highlights the need of designing personalised travel infor-
mation that reflects individual route choices and assures
conditions for efficient transportation, security and comfort.
A fully integrated personalised travel information system that
accounts for cycling in the urban public transport network is
still pending, even in those cities with a fully-evolved cycling
policy framework.
2. MEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING
THE DEMAND OF OTHER TRANSPORT
MODES
Low emission zones (LEZ)
Low emission zones (LEZ) are areas where vehicles that do
not meet a minimum standard for vehicle emissions are
restricted from entering and are subject to large fines if they
do enter. LEZs are deemed restrictive measures since they
affect driving habits and involve fleet renewal. More than
200 LEZ have already been implemented in Europe, with the
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 11
LEZ of London (UK) and Stockholm (Sweden) the most known
examples (Panteliadis et al., 2014). Other LEZs can be found
in Antwerp, Athens, Prague, Copenhagen, Berlin, Bremen,
Karlsruhe, Budapest, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Rome, Palermo,
Verona, Lisbon, Trondheim, Brighton and Oxford.
Promoting cycling is usually included in the implementation
of LEZs. Changes to ownership and use of local vehicle fleets
are expected effects of the LEZ as well as transport modes.
Changes in transport modes take some time to settle down,
starting to become apparent in the months preceding the
start of enforcement and appear to continue to change for at
least one year afterwards (Ellison et al., 2013).
Despite the fact that LEZ do not specifically enhance cycling,
their implementation can become an important decision
factor for modal shifting. No data is available on the effects
of LEZs on modal shift. Some cities like Berlin have increased
their modal share of cycling by 10% between 1998 and 2014
(from 3% to 13%) due to traffic management strategies that
have discouraged the use of private motorised transporta-
tion (SFCC, 2014). In London for example, the bicycle share
scheme of the city is deemed an essential part of the general
LEZ plan.
Congestion charging
Congestion charging aims to reduce congestion within a
specified area of the city through the application of daily
tariff that enables motorists to drive in this area, leave and
re-enter the charging zone as many times as required in one
day. Congestion charging zones are different from LEZ be-
cause these charges are for circulation in a specified zone of
a city regardless of the vehicle type, whereas LEZ restrict the
entrance of a specific type of vehicles (Hamilton, 2011).
The most notable example of a functional congestion
charging zone is found in London. The London congestion
charging scheme has achieved a 27% decrease in traffic
levels of the affected zone since its implementation in 2002
(80,000 fewer cars every day). As a result, the daily journeys
by bicycle in Inner London1 have increased 81% (from 0.32 to
0.58) between 2002 and 2013 (TfL, 2014). Other cities such
as Stockholm and Singapore have implemented congestion
charging as well. As with LEZ, information on the potential
modal shift to cycling originated by the implementation
of congestion charging schemes is not available but some
modal shift may be expected due to the fact that the scheme
does not apply to bicycles.
In Stockholm, the congestion charging zone was introduced
in 2007, covering a distance of approximately 5 km from
the city centre. However the majority of work commuters
to the central areas of the city make trips longer than 5 km.
(Jansson, 2008). The application of the congestion charging
zone decreased incoming traffic to the inner city zone by 18%
(SFCC, 2014).
Other congestion charging schemes can be found in cities
like Bergen (Norway), Durham (UK), Gothenburg (Sweden),
Oslo (Norway), Trondheim (Norway) and Valletta (Malta).
Cities such as Helsinki (Finland) and Edinburgh (UK) are in
the verge of applying a congestion charging scheme and are
awaiting a final decision by policy makers.
Speed management: 30 km/h (20 mph) zones
The implementation of speed management measures across
urban roads and particularly 30 km/h zones follows the need
of maintaining circulation speed at a safe level for pedestrian
and cycling activity. Additionally, the measure is directed
towards reducing traffic and noise pollution at densely popu-
lated urban centres. Several cities in Europe have implement-
ed 30 km/h zones since these were first implemented in 1992
in Graz (Austria). A study carried out in Mol (Belgium) and
Barcelona (Spain) suggested that the implementation of 30
km/h zones may have a limited effect in urban air pollution
and that the most important advantage of such zones is road
safety (Int Pañis et al., 2006). Barcelona introduced in 2007
a 30 km/h zone (Zona 30) in its city centre and since then,
similar zones are being implemented in the rest of the city
and accident rates have dropped by 27% (CDC, 2009). Since
the introduction of Zona 30, the 30 km/h speed limit has
been extended to 215 km2 (26% of the city) and has seen cy-
cling trips increase by 30% overall, from around 1% in 2006
to nearly 2% in 2009. The Zona 30 areas included additional
mobility measures such as street signs, rubber studs, raised
pedestrian crossings and humps. In Bristol (UK), two streets
were given 20 mph limits in 2011 and within 6 months,
cycling and pedestrian activities increased by up to 12% in
these roads (Cedeño-Tovar and Kilbane-Dawe, 2013).
Car-free zones
Car-free zones are usually urban planning strategies that seek
to regenerate spaces that are heavily affected by road-traffic.
The objective of creating car-free spaces is to increase quality
of life in the surrounding areas and to encourage citizens
to shift from private motorisation to cycling and walking
exclusively. In the European Union, reclaiming city streets
for people has become a priority in environmental planning
with noticeable policy examples in Copenhagen, Strasbourg,
Ghent, London (Vauxhall Cross), Cambridge, Wolverhamp-
ton and Oxford (EC, 2014). According to a study carried out
in Northampton (UK), reclaiming heavily congested zones
through the introduction of car-free zones can reduce 15%
of peak hour traffic in the immediate surroundings and helps
guarantee critical mass patronage for public transport and
cycling (NCC, 2007).
Parking rationing and charging
The use of individual motorised transportation can be
discouraged through parking rationing and charging prac-
tises. Parking rationing consists in reducing the number of
available parking areas in the city while parking charging
consists in applying high tariffs to vehicles that use those
areas, either generally or during a specific period of time. The
usual parking management actions are directed to regenerate
city centres and aimed to increase the viability of business
by improving trade, and their outcomes are directly related
to a modal shift (although not exclusively towards cycling).
1 Defined as the London boroughs of Camden, City of London, Greenwich, Hackney, Hammersmith and Fulham, Islington, Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth, Lewisham, Southwark, Tower
Hamlets, Wandsworth and Westminster, classification.
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Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
Applying high parking charges translates in a reduction of
traffic congestion. A study carried out by the Association of
Town & City Management in 18 cities in the UK suggested
that parking costs should be adjusted to the type of location
being referred to in order to be effective (ATCM, 2013). A
study conducted in Valletta (Malta), suggested that reducing
the amount of parking slots in the central area of the city
as well as introducing a charging system for non-residents
(6.25 €/day) made the amount of vehicles entering the city
centre decline by 7.4%, along with a 10% shift from private
motorisation to public transport, cycling and walking (Attard
and Ison, 2014).
Higher vehicle costs
Higher vehicle costs should be generally associated with the
vehicle ownership costs and the vehicle use costs. Vehicle
use costs are usually considered as the costs related to fuel
consumption, maintenance and use taxes. When considering
economic factors related to ownership and use, cycling is
a more cost-effective alternative. In the UK, the following
factors apply when counting the costs of choosing a bicycle
over a car. The initial outlay of a bicycle is in general, much
lower than that of a car (in its cost, the interest lost and
the depreciation). The minimum third party liability and the
vehicle excise duty (VED) are not mandatory for cyclists. Fuel
costs are a major factor where cycling benefits over motor-
ing, as well as maintenance and parts. In general, travelling
10 miles/day by bicycle could save of up to €2,150 each year.
This is especially related to the fact that in the UK, about
one fifth of the energy consumed in transport comes from
journeys of less than 8 km which could be made by foot or
bicycle (Brand et al., 2014).
3. PACKAGES OF MEASURES AND
LINKS WITH AIR QUALITY POLICIES
On a regional or city level, transport and city planners as
well as environmental authorities are working on individual
strategies to improve air quality and health according to their
regional and local conditions. Regional or urban policies are
e.g. bypasses, traffic flow measures, environmental zones,
cycling lane networks, improved public transport etc. Some
city authorities will go beyond that and use measures for
specific hot spots2 (i.e. 30 km/h zones, car-free zones). In ad-
dition, there are measures, that do not change emissions, but
exposures, by technical measures (controlled ventilation with
filter) or non-technical measures (change in behaviour, e.g.
encouraging pedestrians or cyclists to use the least polluted
routes). Some city planning measures, e.g. moving house-
holds or schools to less polluted areas fall in this category
(Transphorm, 2014).
Determining the link of cycling with air quality is not straight-
forward, due to the fact that its implementation in the city
level is usually part of a package of measures that control road
traffic pollution as a whole. In the Air Implementation Pilot
published by the European Environment Agency, the promotion
of cycling is one of the common measures that are implement-
ed by cities to reduce the concentrations of NO and PM . The
Air Implementation Pilot also analysed the Time Extension
Notifications (TENS) of the cities of Antwerp (Belgium), Berlin
(Germany), Dublin (Ireland), Madrid (Spain), Malmô (Sweden),
Milan (Italy), Paris (France), Ploiesti (Romania), Prague (Czech
Republic), Plovdiv (Bulgaria), Vienna (Austria) and Vilnius
(Lithuania). Most of the TENS for these cities state that cycling
is being promoted actively to comply with the European limit
values for N02, PMio and benzene but cycling is always part of a
combination of measures (EEA, 2013).
The impact of a package of measures at the
city level
There is little evidence/information in the literature that
quantifies the effect on a measure-by-measure basis of air
quality policies used by a city to improve air quality levels.
The Transphorm Project has developed an integrated assess-
ment tool (IATV) that allows analysing different transport
scenarios on a city level for Athens, Helsinki, London, Oslo
and Rotterdam. Despite the fact that no explicit scenarios
were developed for cycling, a 10% less-traffic scenario in
2020 was elaborated. This 10% traffic reduction could be pro-
duced by a modal shift to other transportation modes (such
as cycling). The following table (Table 2) includes the PMio
concentration (in pg/m3) that this tool quantifies for this 10%
traffic reduction scenario as well as the reductions (in pg/m3)
in concentrations with respect to the reference year (2008)
and the reductions in case of a Business as Usual scenario in
2020. The values calculated are background values, rather
than roadside.
In order to identify the current state of cycling promotion
as a specific measure for improving urban air quality levels,
the analysis of specific air quality plans adopted by European
cities is made in the following chapters. Additionally, a series
of hypothetic mode share scenarios are evaluated through
an air quality modelling approach in order to estimate the
potential reductions in pollutants’ concentration caused
exclusively by such cycling measures.
TABLE 2. PM10 CONCENTRATIONS FOR SCENARIOS QUANTIFIED WITH THE IATV TOOL FOR THE 10% TRAFFIC REDUCTION SCENARIO
City PM concentration 10 (Baseline: 2008) PM concentration 10 (BAU: 2020) PM concentration 10 (10% traffic reduction: 2020)
Athens 15.0 pg/m3 8.0 pg/m3 8.0 pg/m3
Helsinki 8.5 pg/m3 7.5 pg/m3 7.0 pg/m3
London 9.0 pg/m3 8.0 pg/m3 7.0 pg/m3
Oslo 15.0 pg/m3 14.0 pg/m3 14.0 pg/m3
Rotterdam 14.0 pg/m3 13.0 pg/m3 13.0 pg/m3
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
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REVIEW OF CASE STUDIES
In this section, the use of cycling as a relevant measure for improving air quality is reviewed in five European cities: Antwerp
(Belgium), London (United Kingdom), Nantes (France), Seville (Spain) and Thessaloniki (Greece). These cities were selected by
taking into consideration their participation in the European Mobility Week, their recognition as cities in which cycling has been
continuously supported and their geographic location throughout Europe. The assessment of the air quality status for each of
these cities is made attending to the compliance of the air quality management zones encompassed in the metropolitan areas
with the N02 and PMio limit values (LV) established in Directive 2008/50/EC and for the latest reported year (2012).3
TABLE 3. AVERAGE MODE SHARE OF THE STUDIED CITIES
City Year Car Bike Walk Bus Metro/Tram Train !
Antwerp 2010 41% 23% 20% 6% 8% 2%
London 2006 39% 2% 20% 19% 10% 8%
Nantes 2012 52% 5% 27% 16%
Seville 2011 53% 7% 7% 28% 5% 0%
Thessaloniki 2010 55% 10% 10% 25%
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Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
1. ANTWERP
General features
Antwerp is a city located in the north of Belgium (Flemish
Region), whose metropolitan zone covers an area of 204
km2 (SB, 2014). In terms of its population it is the second
most populous city in Belgium after Brussels, with a total of
510,610 inhabitants (2008) (SB, 2008). The city is located on
the river Scheldt and is linked to the North Sea, sheltering
one of the largest seaports in Europe (Figure 1). The weath-
er in Antwerp is distinctly maritime and usually mild, with
significant precipitation in all seasons4. The average temper-
ature and precipitation are 3.o°C and 65 mm in January and
i8.o°C and 78 mm in July (Peel et al., 2007).
Urban transport and mode share
The city has a well-developed transport infrastructure. It con-
sists in a network of roads (1,206 km) and tunnels, as well as
tram (12 lines) and bus lines which provide access to the city
centre and suburbs (Flemish Government, 2011). The total
number of registered cars in Antwerp is 238,556s, with 56.2%
of the commute journeys made by car and 13.0% made by
bicycle (Eurostat, 2014). According to the European Platform
on Mobility Management (EPOMM), the general mode share
of Antwerp is balanced between car (41%), bicycle (23%)
and walking (20%) as shown in Table 3 (EPOMM, 2014). The
mode share of cycling in Antwerp is the highest amongst the
studied European cities.
Current state of cycling
Policymaking in Antwerp has been traditionally favourable
towards promoting cycling as a measure for improving urban
mobility as well as air quality. The efforts of the city towards
re-establishing cycling as a feasible form of transport as well
as the existing bicycle culture are positively perceived in
Europe and abroad. In 2013 the city was rated with a 72 Co-
penhagenize Index6 (5th place amongst 20 cities worldwide).
This index measures the friendliness of a city towards cycling
in terms of its infrastructure, facilities, modal split and modal
increase projections. As of now, Antwerp has more than 100
km of cycle tracks, separated infrastructure and implement-
ed best practice as a result of intense political engagement.
Antwerp has experienced a modal shift of 7% towards
cycling in the period between 2008 and 2010 (from an initial
16% to 23%). The majority of people who changed towards
cycling were previously using private motorisation and public
transport (EPOMM, 2014). Despite this high modal share, in
2011 the city introduced a bike share system in its central part
(Velo Antwerpen) that has become popular due to its intelli-
gent placement and saturation rates (CDC, 2014).
Air quality status
The city of Antwerp encompasses two air quality manage-
ment zones: BEF01S7 (Port of Antwerp) and BEF02A (Ant-
werp). In 2012, only zone BEF01S did not comply with the
PMio daily LV, exceeding it 36 times in station BELAL058
(Beveren) while the city of Antwerp is itself in compliance.
To improve the air quality levels, since 2004 the municipality
of Antwerp has established a general mobility strategy (Mas-
2 Measures on hot-spot level are those allocated exclusively on high-concentration zones within a city and not elsewhere. These measures usually differ from city-wide measures in that they
intend to abate high pollution levels that occur locally.
3 N02 - annual limit value (40 pg/m3), hourly limit value (200 pg/m3). PM10 - annual limit value (40 pg/m3), daily limit value (50 pg/m3).
4 Kôppen climate classification - Oceanic climate.
5 Number of passenger cars registered as of 2011.
6 The maximum Copenhagenize Index is 100.
7 Standard European code for the air quality management zones.
8 Standard European code for the air quality monitoring stations according to AirBase.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
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15
© Stad Antwerpen, Elisabeth Verwaest
terplan Antwerpen), which contemplates investment in road
and public transport infrastructure in order to alleviate the
heavily-trafficked zone of the port of Antwerp (CELINE, 2013).
The effectiveness of this general mobility strategy has not
been quantified due to its long-term nature. In Figure 1 it can
be seen that ambient N02 levels9 in Antwerp have decreased
2 pg/m3 in the period between 2000 and 2012 (from 47 pg/
m3 to 45 pg/m3). The average mean annual concentration of
PMio in zone BEF02A is 27 pg/m3 in 2012 (Figure 2).
Cycling as an air quality improvement measure
The air quality plan of the Flemish Region submitted to the
European Commission10 for a time extension in the compli-
ance of the PMio LVs contemplates the implementation of
an integral cycling programme (Totaalplan fiets), which is
circumscribed in the general mobility strategy of Antwerp
(Masterplan Antwerpen) and the mobility plan of the Flemish
Region (Mobiliteitsplan Vlaanderen). These mobility plans
aim to increase the modal shift from private motorisation to
other transport modes. Concretely, the local cycling pro-
gramme includes a series of direct investment and promotion
actions to increase mode share as well as road safety (Vlaam-
se Overheid, 2008). Additionally, the city launched a bicycle
share program (Velo Antwerp) in June 2011 which has grown
up to 150 stations and 1800 bikes, with a total investment
of €60 million in 2013. The effectiveness of the local cycling
programme and the general mobility strategies in terms of
emission reductions and impact on N02/PMio concentrations
was not quantified and is not reported.
TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN ANTWERP
ANTWERP
Air Quality Metric2 2008* 2010 2012 Limit Value
N02 annual mean - [pg/m3] 38 36 35 40 pg/m3
N02 hourly exceedances - [hours] 2 0 6 i8h >200 pg/m3
PMio annual mean - [pg/m3] 23 27 27 40 pg/m3
PMio daily exceedances - [days] 27 25 27 35d > 50 pg/m3
Mode Shareb 2008 2010 2012
Cycling 16% 23% Unavailable
Private car 61% 41% Unavailable
Measures for air quality improvement
Summary of measures on road-traffic (2008-2014)° • Mobility plans aimed to improve public transport and slow modes infra- structure - Masterplan Antwerpen. • Cycling program for the region: Totaalplan fiets. • Public transport plan: Pegasusplan. • Parking management measures. • Increasing the uptake of cleaner vehicle fleets (electric, hybrid, etc.). • Adjustment of registration and annual circulation taxes for cars and trucks based on environmental performance. • Road pricing strategies. • Dynamic traffic management.
Cycling as a measure in the local air quality plan Yes
Extension of cycling infrastructure [km] 100 km
Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €60,000,000
Bicycle sharing scheme Velo Antwerp
Participation in the European Mobility Week Yes. Latest participation: 2013
Participation in "In town without my car" event Yes. Latest participation: 2013
* Average air quality values reported for BEF02A (Antwerp).
b Mode share data from EPOMM.
c Information from the PM10 Time Extension Notification for the Flemish Region (2008).
* Reference years for mode share data according to EPOMM.
9 Measured as the annual mean concentration.
10 Reference year: 2005.
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Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
2. LONDON
General features
London is located in the Southeast of Great Britain, covering
an area of 1,572 km2 and is the capital city of the United King-
dom (Figure 1). Standing on the banks of the river Thames, it
is the most populous city in the European Union (8,416,535
inhabitants in 2013), accounting for 12.5% of the UK popula-
tion (GLA, 2012). London has a temperature oceanic climate
(Cfb)\ with average temperatures and precipitations of 8.3°C
and 51 mm in January and 23.2°C and 41 mm in July (Peel et
al., 2007).
Urban transport and mode share
London has one of the largest transport infrastructures in
Europe, consisting in an extensive network of roads (14,830
km), the Underground (metro), many bus lines, a tram, a light
railway, and several urban and suburban railways (TfL, 2013).
The total number of passenger cars registered in London
is the largest amongst the studied cities, namely 3,035,845
vehicles2 (Eurostat, 2014). While 31.9% of the commute jour-
neys in London are carried out by car, only 4.3% of them are
made by bicycle. The poor mode share of cycling in London is
confirmed by the average mode share in 2010 (2%), in con-
trast with the preponderance of private motorisation (39%)
and public transport (37%) (EPOMM, 2014).
Current state of cycling
In London, policymaking has been progressively supporting
cycling as a feasible transport mode that could help alleviate
congestion and increase mobility in the city. The continuous
development of cycling infrastructure and promotion has pro-
duced an estimated 103.2% increase in cycle journey stages
in Greater London since 2000. The most notable cycling-ori-
ented action has been the adoption of the London bicycle
share scheme (Barclays Cycle Hire) in 2010 and its continuous
integration in the urban public transport network (TfL, 2010).
Additionally, the city has been taking part in campaigns pro-
moting public participation in "active travel", and highlighting
the existing cycling infrastructure. As of 2012, approximately
150,000 bicycle journeys per day were registered in the
Central London cordon (TfL, 2014). Despite the efforts, cycling
mode share showed an almost negligible increase (0.9%)
between 2001 and 2008, in contrast with public transport
which increased its mode share by 4% (EPOMM, 2014). As a
consequence, local authorities have outlined plans for spend-
ing €1100 million on cycling over the next years in order to
deliver a step change in cycling provision and to support the
growing number of cyclists in London (TfL, 2014).
Air quality status
The area of Greater London corresponds with the air quality
management zone that reports compliance with the European
LVs for N02 and PMio (UK0001 - Greater London Urban Area).
In 2012, this zone did not comply with the two N02 LVs (hourly
and annual). The N02 hourly LV was exceeded 132 hours and
the annual mean was 94 pg/m3 in station GB0682A (London
Marylebone Road). Source apportionment studies for the city
suggest that road traffic is responsible for approximately 70%
of the measured air quality levels (Defra, 2011). In order to
comply with the N02 LVs, the Greater London Authority has
established a low emission zone (LEZ) in 2008, affecting the
circulation of diesel-engine lorries (>3.51), buses, coaches, large
vans and minibuses, and will adapt it to different Euro stand-
ards. The London LEZ produced a reduction in the N02 quality
levels of the city of 0.2 pg/m3. In addition to this, the conges-
tion charging zone has been discouraging vehicles from access-
ing Central London since 2003 and with an average reduction
of 8% in NOx emissions (Defra, 2012). In general, the mean air
quality levels of N02 in London have not changed significantly
between 2000 and 2012 (Figure 1). The average mean annual
concentration of PMio in zone UK0001 is 22 pg/m3 in 2012.
Cycling as an air quality improvement measure.
Despite the fact that the London LEZ and the congestion
charging zone are the flagship policy instruments for im-
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
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17
© Alexander Baxevanis
proving air quality in the city, cycling has been considered a
relevant abatement measure as well. The 2011 air quality plan
elaborated by the Greater London Authority for obtaining a
time extension in the compliance with N02 LVs outlines the
implementation of cycling-promotion measures in 17 bor-
oughs. Examples of these measures are the implementation
of cycling best practice, promoting cycling amongst public
employees, outlining cycling routes, building and improving
cycling tracks, increasing and securing cycle parking slots and
tackling cycling burglary (Defra, 20ii).The effectiveness of the
cycling-oriented measures in terms of emission reductions
and impact on N02 concentrations was not quantified and is
not reported.
TABLE 5. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN LONDON
LONDON
Air Quality Metric3 2001 2006 2012 Limit Value
N02 annual mean - [pg/m3] 51 51 48 40 pg/m3
N02 hourly exceedances - [hours] 60 458 I32 i8h > 200 pg/m3
PMio annual mean - [pg/m3] 27 29 22 40 pg/m3
PMio daily exceedances - [days] 29 152 27 35d > 50 pg/m3
Mode Shareb 2001 2006 2012
Cycling 2% 3% Unavailable
Private car 41% 39% Unavailable
Measures for air quality improvement
Summary of measures on road-traffic (2001-2014)c • London Low Emission Zone (LEZ). • Low-emission public sector fleets. • Operation of the congestion charging zone. • Promoting smarter travel (enhancing cycling). • Bus emission programme (improvement of bus fleets). • Taxi emissions programme (improvement of taxi fleets). • Increase the uptake of electric vehicles. • Smoothing traffic flow and reducing idling. • Car clubs and car sharing.
Cycling as a measure in the local air quality plan Yes
Extension of cycling infrastructure [km] Unclassified
Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €1,100,000,000
Bicycle sharing scheme Barclays Cycle Hire
Participation in the European Mobility Week Yes. Latest participation: 2013
Participation in "In town without my car" event Yes. Latest participation: 2013
a Average air quality values reported for UK0001 (Greater London Urban Area).
b Mode share data from EPOMM.
c Information from the Air Quality Plan for the Greater London Urban Area (2011).
_cfe
18 RICARDO-AEA
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
3. NANTES
General features
Nantes is a city located in western France and is the capital
of the Pays de la Loire region (Figure i). Its metropolitan area
covers 524.6 km2 and hosts 873,133 inhabitants (2010) making
it the 6th most populous city in France (INSEE, 2014). The
city has a Western European oceanic climate, with frequent
rainfalls throughout the year and cool temperatures (Cfb)\ The
average temperatures and precipitation are 4-5°C and 91 mm
in January and i7.o°C and 39 mm in July (Météo-France, 2013).
Urban transport and mode share
The transport network of Nantes reflects its character as a
mid-size European city. The current network has three tram-
way lines, suburban railways and an extensive bus network
with 56 lines. The municipality of Nantes has 481,882 passen-
ger cars registered2, with 63% of the commute journeys car-
ried out by car and 4% made by bicycle (Eurostat, 2014). The
average mode share of the city in 2010 suggests a prevalent
private motorisation (52%), followed by walking (27%) while
cycling accounts for only 5% of the trips (EPOMM, 2014).
Current state of cycling
Nantes has a 373 km network of separated cycling tracks
with a clear trend towards expansion, participating in the
inter-regional (la Loire à vélo) and the pan-European Eu-
roVelo 6 routes. There is sufficient political will to maintain
cycling investment to impulse modal shifts in the city and the
metropolitan areas, having spent €40 million between 2009
and 2014. Additionally, Nantes has a bicycle sharing system
in place since 2008 (Bicloo) with more than 5 thousand
subscribers (TAN, 2014). Cycling investment has produced a
shift in the modal share in the metropolitan area of Nantes of
2.5% (from 2% to 4.5% between 2008 and 2012). As a result
of its involvement in promoting and investing in cycling,
Nantes has been awarded with a 72 Copenhagenize Index in
2013 (CDC, 2013).
Air quality status
The city of Nantes is covered by the air quality management
zone FR23A01 (Pays de la Loire-Nantes), which in 2012 com-
plied with all the LVs established by European Legislation for
N02 and PMio. Despite compliance with the European LVs, air
quality levels in Nantes in 2012 were between 14 and 22 pg/
m3 and between 17 and 26 pg/m3 for the N02 and PMio annual
means respectively. N02 levels in Nantes decreased 8 pg/m3
in the period between 2000 and 2012 according to Figure
1. The average mean annual concentration of PMio in zone
FR23A01 is 22 pg/m3 in 2012 (Figure 2).
Cycling as an air quality improvement measure
Air quality policymaking in Nantes has been outlined in
the Regional Air Quality Plan (Pays de la Loire) and the
Urban Travel Plan ("A mobile city is a sustainable city -
2000/2010"). The general objective of the plan is to reduce
private motorisation mode share to 50% (currently 52%) and
by promoting cycling in the city centre. All of the measures
outlined in section 3.3.3 are included in the air quality plan
and are expected to be completed in a temporal scale of 5 to
10 years (Nantes Métropole, 2013). The effectiveness of the
cycling-oriented measures in terms of emission reductions
and impact on N02 concentrations was not quantified and is
not reported.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
RICARDO-AEA
19
© Christiane Blanchard
TABLE 6. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN NANTES
NANTES
Air Quality Metric2 2008 2012 Limit Value
N02 annual mean - [pg/m3] I9 14 40 pg/m3
N02 hourly exceedances - [hours] 0 0 i8h >200 pg/m3
PMio annual mean - [pg/m3] 17 22 40 pg/m3
PMio daily exceedances - [days] 20 20 35d > 50 pg/m3
Mode Shareb 2008 2010
Cycling 2.0% 4-5%
Private car Unavailable 52%
Measures for air quality improvement
Summary of measures on road-traffic (2008-20i4)c • Promotion of sustainable transport strategies (car pools, walking). • Enhancement of cycling infrastructures. • Speed limitations. • Integration of inter-modal solutions for transport. • Encouraging cleaner vehicle technologies among users.
Cycling as a measure in the local air quality plan Yes
Extension of cycling infrastructure [km] 373 km
Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €40,000,000
Bicycle sharing scheme Bidoo
Participation in the European Mobility Week Yes. Latest participation: 2010
Participation in "In town without my car" event No
3 Average air quality values reported for FR23A01 (Pays de la Loire-Nantes).
b Mode share data from EPOMM. The cycling mode share in 2008 was taken from (CDC, 2013).
c Information from the Revision of the Plan for Atmospheric Protection in Nantes-St. Nazaire (2014).
20 RICARDO-AEA______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
4. SEVILLE
General features
Seville is the capital and largest city of the region of Anda-
lusia, in Southern Spain (Figure i). The city is located in the
banks of the Guadalquivir river, covering an area of 140 km2
and hosting a population of 703,021 in 2011 making it the
fourth most populous in Spain (INE, 2011). Seville has a sub-
tropical Mediterranean climate (Csa)', with dry summers and
wet winters. The average temperatures and precipitation are
io.9°C and 66 mm in January and 28.i°C and 5 mm in July. On
average, Seville has 66 days of rain a year (AEMET, 2014).
Urban transport and mode share
The city has an extended transport network that serves the
neighbouring urban agglomerations and that connects it with
the rest of the region. The public transport network of Seville
is composed by urban and interurban bus lines (38 lines), a
tram and a metro system with 4 lines. The city is also served
by suburban and regional train lines. The total number of ve-
hicles registered in Seville is 281,208 in 2004, with 55.0% of
the commute journeys made by car and 1.1% by bicycle (Eu-
rostat, 2014; CTM, 2014). The mode share of Seville is charac-
terised by the importance of private motorisation (53%) and
public transport (33%), as well as a moderate penetration of
cycling (7%) (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, 2010).
Current state of cycling
Seville has implemented one of the most ambitious pro-
grammes for the promotion of cycling, which has changed
the patterns of mobility in the cities. In the period between
2007 and 2010, 80 km of differentiated cycling tracks have
been built in the city, organised in 8 itineraries. In the follow-
ing years, an additional network of 30 km was built in order
to complement the existing one. Apart from the infrastruc-
ture, Seville has its own bicycle share programme (BiciSevil-
la), which has gained acceptance among the residents of the
city due to its convenience and smart location (especially for
commuters to the old town) (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, 2010).
The transformation of the city’s mobility has been rapid and
positive, partly due to a sustained compromise on behalf
of urban planners. This ultimately led to a change in modal
share from 0.5% in 2006 to 7% in 2013, which awarded the
city with a Copenhagenize Index of 76 (CDC, 2013). As of
now, the local and regional governments plan to spend €421
million in maintaining the existing infrastructure and expand-
ing it to the nearby urban areas.
Air quality status
The city of Seville and its metropolitan area are covered by
the air quality management zone ES0125 (Nueva Zona Sevilla
y Area Metropolitana). Zone ES0125 complies in 2012 with all
the LVs established by European legislation, except for the
PMio daily LV which is exceeded 40 days in station ES1638A
(Bermejales). According to a source apportionment study,
most of these exceedances are caused by the intrusion of
Saharan dust into the Iberian Peninsula, whose extraction
would result in compliance with the PMio daily LV for this
zone (Pey et al., 2013). Nevertheless, local authorities have
applied for a time extension to the European Commission
with a comprehensive air quality plan that contains cy-
cling-oriented measures (Junta de Andalucía, 2014). As for
NO mean concentrations, the overall levels in Seville de-
creased 27 pg/m3 in the period between 2000 and 2012 (from
52 pg/m3 to 25 pg/m3) (Figure 1). The average mean annual
concentration of PMio in zone ES0125 is 33 pg/m3 in 2012.
Cycling as an air quality improvement measure
The air quality plan of the city of Seville considers cycling
within a pack of measures destined to reduce traffic volumes
through the promotion of non-motorised transport. The
measure itself is linked with a series of other measures that
intend to reduce pollution levels integrally. The document
of the air quality plan specifies the measures concerning
cycling as (i) the design of cycling itineraries and routes, (ii)
reinforcing and expanding bicycle share schemes and (iii)
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 21
© Cidogreen
extending and securing bicycle parking slots. To increase
modal share (and pollution abatement), the city council will
consider implementing eco-bonus instruments for the acqui
sition of bicycles, as well as trip-end facilities. The seamless
integration of cycling into the public transport network is
also established in the air quality plan, by specifying that
discounts and preferential rates are to be applied for com-
mute journeys that combine cycling and trains or buses. The
complete pack of measures acting on road-traffic (including
those cycling-oriented) is expected to achieve a reduction
objective of 4 pg/m3 of N02 or PMio after 2020 (Junta de
Andalucía, 2014).
TABLE 7. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN SEVILLE
SEVILLE
Air Quality Metric3 2006 2012 Limit Value
N02 annual mean - [pg/m3] 34 24 40 pg/m3
N02 hourly exceedances - [hours] 3 3 i8h >200 pg/m3
PMio annual mean - [pg/m3] 41 33 40 pg/m3
PMio daily exceedances - [days] 152 40 35d > 50 pg/m3
Mode Shareb 2006 2012C
Cycling 0.5% 7-0%
Private car Unavailable 35%
Measures for air quality improvement
Summary of measures on road-traffic (2006-20i4)d • Promoting non-motorised transportation modes. • Developing and enhancing cycling in the city. • Creating separate infrastructure for cyclists. • Imposing restrictions to use of private cars (bans). • Incentivising the use of high-occupancy vehicles. • Increasing and improving existing public transport infrastructure. • Introducing new car-free zones in the city centre. • Revising the existing mobility plan to integrate intermodal transpor- tation options.
Cycling as a measure in the local air quality plan Yes
Extension of cycling infrastructure [km] 110 km
Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) €421,000,000
Bicycle sharing scheme Bici Sevilla
Participation in the European Mobility Week Yes. Latest participation: 2012
Participation in "In town without my car" event No
â Average air quality values reported for ES0125 (Nueva Zona Sevilla y Area Metropolitana).
b Mode share data for cycling from Copenhagenize Design Company.
c Mode share data for cycling in Seville are referred to 2013. Mode share data for private cars is referred to 2011.
d Information from the Air Quality Plan for the Metropolitan Area of Seville (2010).
.efe.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
22 RICARDO-AEA
5. THESSALONIKI
General features
Thessaloniki is the second largest city in Greece and is the
capital of the region of Macedonia, covering an area of 111.7
km2 with a total population of 322,240 inhabitants in 2011
(NSSG, 2011). The city is located in the northern fringe of the
Thermaic Gulf and bounded by Mount Hortiatis on the south-
east (Figure 1). The climate of Thessaloniki is determined by
the sea, having a humid subtropical climate (Cda) with mean
temperatures and precipitation of 9.3°C and 37 mm in Janu-
ary and 3i.5°C and 20 mm in July (Peel et al., 2007).
Urban transport and mode share
As a mid-size European city, urban transport in Thessaloniki
relies basically on private motorisation and public transport.
Regarding private motorisation, passenger cars in the city
are driven approximately 600,000 veh» km every year. As
for public transport, the city is served by 92 bus lines that
connect it with its regional zone of influence and a metro
system that will be inaugurated shortly. The total number of
cars registered in the municipality of Thessaloniki is 145,000
(2006), with 72.4% of the commute journeys carried out by
car (OSET, 2014). The mode share of the city in 2010 indicates
the preponderance of cars (55%) and public transport (25%).
Cycling has a 10% of the mode share, the second highest
amongst the studied cities (EPOMM, 2014).
Current state of cycling
Despite the fact that Thessaloniki does not have an extensive
cycling infrastructure, important efforts are being done by
the local authorities to create a cycling culture that encourag-
es a modal shift among users. Since 2010, the city has been
hosting cycling schools and events (the cycling carnival) as
well as publishing promotional pamphlets and documents in
order to create a critical mass of usual cyclists (DT, 2010). The
city currently has a differentiated cycling track in the new-
ly-refurbished seaside zone (Paraliaki), providing an alterna-
tive to the congested eastbound streets of the city (Megas
Alexandrou and Vasilissis Olgas boulevards). In 2013 the city
inaugurated its first bicycle sharing scheme (ThessBike), with
450 public bicycles, 26 collection points and 6 subscription
stations (DT, 2014).
Air quality status
The city of Thessaloniki is encompassed within the EL0004
air quality management zone (Oikismos Thessaloniki). In
2012 this zone did not comply with both PMio LVs: the annual
LV was surpassed by 1 pg/m3 (41 pg/m3) in station GR0018A
(Agia Sofia) and the daily LV was exceeded 79 days in station
for that station. Local authorities have applied for a time
extension to the European Commission, including an air qual-
ity plan which calls for the implementation of low-emission
zones, parking penalisation schemes and the eco-bonuses
for the renewal of the passenger-car vehicle fleet (Vlachos
and Lavdaki, 2004). In general, the average N02 annual mean
concentrations in Thessaloniki decreased 17 pg/m3 in the pe-
riod between 2000 and 2012 (from approximately 39 pg/m3
to 22 pg/m3) (Figure 1). The average mean annual concentra-
tion of PMio in zone EL0004 is 36 pg/m3 in 2012 (Figure 2).
Cycling as an air quality improvement measure
At present, local authorities of Thessaloniki are not consider-
ing actions directed towards increasing investment in cycling
to improve air quality. According to the air quality plan of
the city, most actions are related to the construction of new
public transport networks as well as the drafting of a new
mobility strategy for the city and a low-emission zone.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
C$fo._____RICARDO-AEA 23
© Thessaloniki Cycle Chic
TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF CYCLING AND AIR QUALITY IN THESSALONIKI
THESSALONIKI
Air Quality Metric3 2006 2010 2012 Limit Value
N02 annual mean - [pg/m3] 39 27 22 40 pg/m3
N02 hourly exceedances - [hours] 0 0 0 i8h > 200 pg/m3
PMio annual mean - [pg/m3] 30 46 36 40 pg/m3
PMio daily exceedances - [days] 0 0 79 35d > 50 pg/m3
Mode Shareb 2006 2010 2012
Cycling Unavailable 10% Unavailable
Private car Unavailable 55% Unavailable
Measures for air quality improvement
Summary of measures on road-traffic (2004-2014)c • Implementation of a low emission zone. • Construction and development of an underground transportation system (Metro Thessalonikis). • Implementation of economic/taxation instruments for the uptake of cleaner vehicles. • Parking penalisation schemes.
Cycling as a measure in the local air quality plan No
Extension of cycling infrastructure [km] Unclassified
Total budget for cycling (multi-annual, 2013) Unknown
Bicycle sharing scheme ThessBike
Participation in the European Mobility Week Yes. Latest participation: 2013
Participation in "In town without my car" event No
* Average air quality values reported for EL0004 (Oikismos Thessalonikis).
b Mode share data from EPOMM.
c Information from the PM10Time Extension Notification for the Agglomeration of Thessaloniki (2004).
24 RICARDO-AEA______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
6. CONCLUSIONS
In general, it can be said that four of the five studied cities
are implementing cycling-related measures to comply with
the N02 and PMio limit values, obligated by European Legis-
lation (the only exemption being Thessaloniki). The degree
of development of these cycling measures differs from city
to city, from advanced infrastructures and political commit-
ment in the case of Seville or Antwerp, to limited degrees in
the case of Thessaloniki. However there is general agree-
ment in the fact that cycling is a useful alternative to reduce
motorised traffic, which in turn is the most relevant pollut-
ant source in urban agglomerations. Despite recognising
cycling as a potential alternative to private motorisation, its
effectiveness as an individual measure or within the broader
scope of the air quality and mobility plans has not been as-
sessed by local authorities individually. Only Seville evaluated
its effectiveness included in a wider package of road-traffic
measures.
FIGURE 1. TEMPORAL EVOLUTION OF THE ANNUAL MEAN CONCENTRATION OF NO, IN THE STUDIED CITIES
I Antwerp H London I Nantes I Seville I Thessaloniki « « LV
_l_________I_______I________I_______I_______I________I_______I________I_______I________I_______I________I_
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
YEAR
FIGURE 2. TEMPORAL EVOLUTION OF THE ANNUAL MEAN CONCENTRATION OF PM10 IN THE STUDIED CITIES.
I Antwerp H London I Nantes I Seville I Thessaloniki “ “ LV
YEAR
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 25
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
The objective of this section is to estimate the potential
reductions in pollutants emissions and concentrations as well
as health benefits that cycling measures bring about as part of
a package of measures to improve air quality. The study has
focused on specific example zones in Antwerp, London and
Thessaloniki three of the case study cities. These cities were
chosen as these are the cities that, according to section 3, are
in infringement of the European limit values for N02 and/or
PMio and have drafted air quality plans to assure future com-
pliance. The assessment is based on three scenarios that are
representative of different degrees of increased cycling mode
share representing different levels of cycling investment.
1. SCENARIO DEFINITION
Three scenarios were defined in terms of different degrees
of cycling mode share, ranging from a modest penetration of
cycling (business-as-usual) to an ideal situation where cycling
completely substitutes private motorisation. These scenarios
are the following:
• Business as usual scenario (BAU). The business as usual
scenario contemplates normal vehicle circulation patterns
in the studied cities and a mode share in which private
motorisation predominates. This scenario tries to reflect
as much as possible the current situation of cycling in the
urban centre. The respective local11 mode shares consid-
ered for each of the cities under this scenario are shown in
Figure 3.
• Typical cycling investment scenario (Si-TCS). This scenar-
io reflects the consequences of a constant, moderate invest-
ment in cycling on the mode share of a city. For the three
studied cases, an increase in the cycling mode share of 23%
was assumed as representative of a city in which cycling is
encouraged by the existence of infrastructure, bicycle share
schemes, etc. (Figure 4). The selection of this modal shift
corresponds to the expected growth of cycling in a city with
some infrastructure already implemented (derived from our
literature review and from previous expert knowledge). For
this scenario, it was assumed that new cyclists were former
passenger car drivers in every case.
• Limited Car-free scenario (S2-CFS). The car-free scenario
is a limited and not a radical approach that reproduces a
traffic situation in which a limited part of the city, maximum
two roads, is closed to motor vehicles. The scenario aims to
reflect the "In Town without my Car!" event. One or two im-
portant roads in the studied cities were modelled as closed
to traffic. Additionally, this limited car-free scenario includes
the increase in the cycling mode share of 23% considered
for Si-TCS (Figure 4). The car-free scenario is based on clos-
ing Plantin en Moretuslei (Antwerp), Marylebone Road and
Baker Street (London), loanni Tsimiski and Leoforos Nikis
(Thessaloniki).
FIGURE 3. ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY FLOWS PER VEHICLE TYPE IN THE STUDIED ZONES (2012)
HGV
LDV
Buses
Cars
Motorcycles
Bicycles
s-
-O
400.000 -
4>
m
Ï 300.000 -
"Ó
O'
00
O'
2
«
o
3b
K
O
O
3b
■ ■ ■
3b
■
o
co
co wo
3b
13b
■
8
s
BAU
SI-TCS S2-CFS
London
III
BAU SI-TCS S2-CFS
Antwerp
3b
3b
o
g
3b
§
BAU
SI-TCS S2-CFS
Thessaloniki
26 RICARDO-AEA______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
In all cases it is assumed that the modal shift to cycling occurs
only from private motorisation and not from public transport
or other transportation modes. This is simplification just to re-
flect the potential for cycling as part of a mode shift package.
2. STUDY ZONES
The impact assessment focused on a representative zone of
each of the cities, rather than the entire city, for simplicity.
In every case, the selected zones were close to monitoring
locations in which exceedances of the European limit values
were registered in order to assess whether cycling-oriented
policies could drive future compliance (section 3). The stud-
ied zones are described as follows and presented as maps in
technical appendices (available on www.ecf.com/airquality).
• Antwerp. The selected zone consists in an area of approx-
imately 1.6 km2 located in the surroundings of Borgerhout
air quality station. The area has several major roads (Plantin
en Moretuslei, Lieutenant Lippenslaan, Binnensingel, Noor-
dersingel, etc.) and is primarily of a residential character.
According to what was presented in section 3, exceedances
in Antwerp (zone BEF01S) are driven by station BELAL05
(Beveren) which is located in the industrial zone of the
port. As a result, the analysis was made on the Borgerhout
station where cycling is more likely to be part of the local
mode share.
• London. The studied zone of London is an area of 1.1 km2 lo-
cated near the London Marylebone Road air quality station
(GB0682A), which drove non-compliance for the entire air
quality management zones for the N02 limit values in 2012.
The zone’s most important roads are Marylebone Road
(A501), Baker Street and Gloucester Place and the area is of
a mixed residential and commercial use.
• Thessaloniki. The historic centre of Thessaloniki was cho-
sen as the analysis zone (1.2 km2) because it is the location
of the Agia Sofia air quality station (GR0018A), which is
responsible for the non-compliance of the zone with the
PMio daily limit value. The zone is primarily commercial
and residential, with important roads that connect the city
east and westbound such as Egnatia Odos, loanni Tsimiski,
Leoforos Nikis and Mitropoleos.
3. IMPACTS OF CYCLING ON EMISSION
REDUCTIONS
Impacts were assessed in terms of the differences in the
annual emission of nitrogen oxides (N0x)12, particulate matter
(PMio) and black carbon (BC)13 between the three scenarios.
Annual emissions for each of the scenarios were quantified
from changes in activity (i.e. vehicles kilometre driven) and
emission factors for every vehicle type present in the studied
zone (Figure 3). The detailed methodology on the quantifica-
tion of emissions is found in technical appendices (available
on www.ecf.com/airquality).
The results suggest that increasing the cycling uptake in the
city reduces the emissions of NO , PM and BC14 in the stud-
ied areas. The highest NOx emission reductions are observed
for London15 followed by Antwerp, with the smallest reduc-
tions being in Thessaloniki. In the case of PMio emissions (in-
cluding BC), the highest reductions are observed for Antwerp.
Adopting cycling investment strategies that produce a 23%
FIGURE 4. ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF a) NOx AND bj PM10, BC FOR THE STUDIED SCENARIOS IN LONDON, ANTWERP AND THESSALONIKI
BAU Si-TCS S2-CFS BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS
London Antwerp Thessaloniki London Antwerp Thessaloniki
11 The observed mode shares were obtained as a function of annual average daily flows in the studied zones of Antwerp, London and Thessaloniki, considering the cycling mode shares
reported in EPOMM, (2011).
12 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) corresponds to the total mass of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02) emitted at tailpipe. Emissions are reported as NOx because both, NO and N02 suffer
chemical changes in the atmosphere (NO is further oxidised to N02 and both contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone). Concentrations are reported only as N02 because it is
the nitrogen oxide which produces health impacts.
13 The NASA definition of black carbon is the carbonaceous primary particle species that is emitted mainly from combustion processes, with a 'black', light-absorbing aerosol that composes
mainly from elemental carbon and is commonly known as soot (Kupiainen and Klimont, 2007).
14 The emissions of PM10 include the emissions of BC.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 27
(Si-TCS) increase in cyclists led to reductions of 18% in NOx
and 19% in PMio in Antwerp; 27% in NOx and 4% in PMio in
London; and 16% in NO and 17% in PM in Thessaloniki.
As might be expected with the additional closure of a major
road in the car free scenario (S2-CFS) in each of the study
zones the reductions increase to 36% in NOx and 48% in
PM in Antwerp; 61% in NO and 36% in PM in London; and
15% in NOx and 17% in PMio in Thessaloniki.
The differences between the cities reflect the differences in
the vehicles operating in these cities and the particular zones
chosen. This in turn will generate difference in emissions
savings from the displaced vehicles as a results of mode shift
to cycling. In addition the highest reductions in emissions
are associated to those cities in which the closed road has a
higher vehicle flow.
4. IMPACTS OF EMISSION REDUCTIONS
ON LOCAL AIR QUALITY
Impacts have been assessed as to the differences in the con-
centration of nitrogen dioxide (N02), particulate matter (PMio)
and black carbon (BC) between the three scenarios under a
representative set of meteorological conditions. The dispersion
of pollutants was simulated with the California Line Source
Dispersion Model (CALINE4) using the meteorological condi-
tions of the particular days in which exceedances of the N02
and/or PMio limit values were registered in the respective air
quality monitoring stations (Table 9). The N02 hourly means
and the PMio daily means obtained from the simulation for
all the pollutants were converted into annual means through
a statistical parameterisation based on historical air quality
observations from AirBase (Vedrenne et al., 2014). Further
details on the configuration of the model and the processing
of outputs can be found in the technical appendices (available
on www.ecf.com/airquality).
The general modelling process focused only on the contribu-
tions of road-traffic in the studied area to the local air quality
levels (measured by the respective monitoring location). As
a result, the simulated concentrations do not account for all
the sources that exist in the area (i.e. residential, off-road,
etc.) nor do they consider the contribution of adjacent roads
outside the studied domains.
Results are presented as simulated concentrations at the
above monitoring locations, as shown in Figure 5, and as
general concentration map for each zone. Generally, high
TABLE 9. EXCEEDANCE DATES FOR WHICH IMPACTS IN CONCENTRATIONS WERE EVALUATED
City Air quality station Exceeded LV Date Value I
Antwerp Borgerhout None 18/02/2012 -
NO hourly LV 24/07/2012 (9a.m.) 277 pg/m3
London Marylebone Road
NO annual LV 2 2012 94 pg/m3
PM daily LV 12/12/2012 57 pg/m3
Thessaloniki Agia Sofia 10
PM annual LV IO 2012 41 pg/m3
FIGURE 5. aj NO, AND bj PM10 AIR QUALITY LEVELS AT THE RESPECTIVE MONITORING LOCATIONS UNDER THE THREE ANALYSED SCENARIOS
London Antwerp
Thessaloniki
E
a>
Annual Mean
■ Max 36th Concentration
BAU Si-TCS S2-CFS BAU Si-TCS S2-CFS BAU Si-TCS S2-CFS
London Antwerp Thessaloniki
28 RICARDO-AEA______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
concentrations of pollutants in the studied zones are located
near high-trafficked roads (Plantin en Moretuslei, Marylebone
Road, loanni Tsimiski). Concentrations tend to decrease with
distance from these roads, unless these roads are adversely
affected by specific local conditions and urban structure (for
example in Dorset Square in London or Plateia Aristotelous in
Thessaloniki).
The results in Figure 5 above show the simulated air pollu-
tions levels for the Business as Usual (BAU) and the reduc-
tions achieved with the cycling investment scenario (Si-TCS)
and the car free scenario (S2-CFS).
Analysing the achievable reduction of air quality levels at the
monitoring locations under the three scenarios allows quan-
tifying the effectiveness of cycling with regards to complying
with the NO and PM limit values.
2 10
In the case of Antwerp, Si-TCS reduced the N02 annual mean
by 6.3 pg/m3 and the annual mean for PMio by 0.3 pg/m3 at
the monitoring station location. The highest reductions for
this scenario are located at the junction between Noordersin-
gel and Koolstraat (14.0 pg/m3 for the N02 annual mean and
2.0 pg/m3 for the PMio annual mean). Reductions are higher
with S2-CFS, which decreased the NO the annual mean 12.6
pg/m3 and the PMio annual mean 1.4 pg/m3. The maximum
reductions are located at the same junction, with reductions
as high as 18.0 pg/m3 for the N02 annual mean and 3.0 pg/m3
for the PMio annual mean. These are significant reductions,
which although Antwerp is in compliance with European limit
values at Borgerhout station, shows further improvements
can be achieved.
For London, the N02 annual mean was not improved at the
air quality monitoring station (Marylebone Road) by any of
the scenarios, partially because of the unfavourable dis-
persion patterns that affect concentrations at this location
as well as its exposure to nearby highly-trafficked roads.
However, reductions are observed at other locations in the
studied zone and range between 8.0 pg/m3 for the annual
mean with Si-TCS to 16.0 pg/m3 with S2-CFS respectively in
the junction between Melcombe Street and Gloucester Place.
In the case of PMio the annual mean is reduced by 0.3 pg/m3
for Si-TCS. The maximum reductions for PM annual means
10
are achieved in the vicinity of Regent’s Park and Baker Street
Station (3.0 pg/m3 for the annual mean under Si-TCS and 4.0
pg/m3 under S2-CFS). These improvements are much smaller
than seen in Antwerp and so would continue be in infraction
of the European limit values even with the cycling measures.
In Thessaloniki, the N02 air quality levels were not improved
in Agia Sofia under the simulated scenarios. Despite this fact,
improvements are seen elsewhere in the streets of Thes-
saloniki, with the greatest being at the heavily congested
junctions of Mitropoleos and Pavlou Mela with Palaion Patron
Germanou. These improvements can be as high as 3.0 pg/m3
and 14.0 pg/m3 for the annual mean under both scenarios. In
the case of PMio, the annual mean was improved by 0.3 pg/
m3 in both cases. Undertaking cycling investment to achieve
a modal shift as specified in Si-TCS, does not bring about a
sufficient reduction for compliance with the PM annual limit
value (40.9 pg/m3).
The reductions in air pollutions concentration are quite diffe-
rent from the changes in emissions in each of the zones and
this is a result of the considerable influence of factors such
as meteorology, urban configuration and regional influences
(Keuken et al., 2012). This highlights the difficulty of drawing
simple conclusion on the impact of cycling measure on air
pollution as it depend on a significant range of local conditions
including both the existing traffic mix and local meteorology.
5. IMPACTS OF IMPROVEMENTS OF
LOCAL AIR QUALITY ON HEALTH
Ultimately the driver to improve air quality is the desire
to reduce the health impact of poor air quality on the city
residents. This section provides illustrative assessment of
the potential health benefits of the scenarios assessed here.
For the purposes of this project, the quantification of the
impacts of air quality on human health was made in terms
of the disability adjusted life years (DALY) metric for black
carbon (BC)16 as recommended in Rao et al., (2013). DALY is
a relevant health-impact metric that extends the concept of
potential years of life lost due to premature death to include
years of healthy life lost by virtue of being in states of poor
health or disability (Murray et al., 2002).
In order to allocate the share of damage that air pollution
has on poor health, BC concentrations were converted into
population-attributable fractions (PAF) which were in turn
multiplied by raw DALY rates for cardiopulmonary health
outcomes in the countries of the selected cities. These values
originally came from the Mortality and Burden Disease
Estimates of the World Health Organisation (Mathers et al.,
2006). To this respect, health impacts were quantified only
for the contributions of road traffic to the air quality levels
at the studied monitoring locations (Table 9). Further details
on the methodology for quantifying the impacts of local air
quality on human health can be found in technical appendi-
ces to this study (available on www.ecf.com/airquality).
The DALY rates (in days of disability per 10,000 inhabitants)
for the three scenarios and the studied cities are shown in
Figure 6. In the case of Antwerp, the BAU scenario produces
836 DALY per 10,000 inhabitants due to cardiopulmonary
diseases. The inclusion of cycling measures reduces the
disability by 50 years (to 786 DALY) under both scenarios. In
the case of London, the BAU scenario produces a disability
rate of 1478 DALY per 10,000 inhabitants, which is reduced
to 1471 DALY by Si-TCS and to 1438 by S2-CFS (respective
reductions of disability in 7 and 39 years). Finally for Thes-
saloniki, the BAU scenario contemplates a disability rate of
1442 DALY per 10,000 inhabitants which after the adoption
of cycling measures reduces this value slightly to 1438 for
both scenarios.
15 Provided data refer to the studied zones and not to the entire urban agglomeration.
16 The used BC annual means account for the background levels as well.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 29
FIGURE 6. DALY (BC) RATES FOR THE STUDIED SCENARIOS IN LONDON, ANTWERP AND THESSALONIKI
DALY
1600
1400
O
O
O
o
X
o
-O
o
o
o
0
h
1
h
<
400
BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS
London
BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS
Antwerp
BAU Sl-TCS S2-CFS
Thessaloniki
6. CONCLUSIONS
The objective of this chapter was to assess the effective-
ness of cycling, as a measure intended to encourage modal
shift away private motorisation, in order to improve the air
quality levels of Antwerp, London and Thessaloniki under two
hypothetic scenarios. In every case, modal shift from private
motorisation to cycling produced reductions in the emissions
of NOx, PMio and BC but this varied from city to city depend-
ing on the local traffic situation. These emission reductions in
turn resulted in improvements in the air quality levels of the
studied zones in the cities, although the improvements again
varied from city to city as a results of local conditions for
example with much greater benefits being seen in Antwerp
than London. Other formulation: they contribute partly to
compliance with Limit Values.
Even without the improvements being enough to achieve
compliance with the air quality limit values they did provide
health benefits showing decreases in life year lost (measured
as cardiopulmonary DALY rates) in the three cities. In the
case of Antwerp and London, the car-free scenario (S2-CFS)
produced further reduction when compared to the enhanced
cycling investment scenario (Si-TCS) due to the fact that the
closed roads had the highest traffic flows in their respec-
tive study zones. In the case of Thessaloniki, the reductions
achieved by the car-free scenario were marginal due to the
fact that the closed roads had significantly lower traffic flows
and were not the ones with most circulation in the domain.
These results show that there is no simple relationship
between cycling measures and improvements in air quality
as the exact relation is very dependent on local conditions.
However, the introduction of cycle measures most likely as
part of a wider package of measures to reduce road traffic
will show improvements in air quality and although these
improvements may not be enough to meet air quality compli-
ance levels they will still generate health benefits.
30 RICARDO-AEA______-dfe
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
RECOMMENDATIONS
Technical measures alone, in terms of technologies that
directly reduce emission from road vehicles, are insufficient
to meet compliance with urban air quality objectives. This
has been highlighted by the failure of vehicle Euro emission
standards to produce the reductions in emissions expected
in urban areas as has been noted in various studies (Carslaw
et al., 2013: EEA, 2013; Hitchcock et al., 2014). Therefore a
more demand-side-focused approach is needed to reduce the
impacts of transport, such as air pollution, and develop a more
sustainable transport system. A commonly used framework is
the three-pillar system known as Avoid-Shift-Improve (Dalk-
mann & Brannigan, 2007; UNEP, 2013):
• Avoid the need to travel to access goods and services,
through efficient urban planning, communication technology,
consolidation activities and demand management.
• Shift people and goods that need to be moved towards more
inherently sustainable modes such as walking, cycling, public
transport, rail and (where appropriate) water transport.
• Improve the environmental performance of vehicles by the
adoption of low-emission vehicle technologies and more
efficient operation of vehicles.
In line with this approach cycling measures are now present
in the air quality and mobility plans of numerous cities around
the world. In terms of air quality this needs to be related to
a mode shift away from motorised road transport, and the
emissions benefits that this brings, rather than an increase in
cycling per se. Therefore cycling measures need to be part of
an overall approach to reduce road traffic in order to generate
air quality improvements.
The examination of the measures aimed at increasing cycling
mode share suggests that in order to encourage cycling and
attract people out of cars, municipalities have to engage in
developing the appropriate infrastructure (bike share schemes,
differentiated tracks, end-of-trip facilities, parking slots, etc.),
carrying out positive information campaigns and more widely
discouraging the use of private motorised transport through
the adoption of policy instruments such as congestion charg-
ing or low-emission zones.
Analysis of the European case study cities revealed that the
most successful drivers for modal change are the development
of appropriate cycling infrastructure and its correct integra-
tion with the public transport network. In these cases a direct
relationship between these variables and an increase in cycling
modal share has been observed. For example, cities such as
Antwerp or Seville have the highest cycling modal share and
the largest cycling infrastructure among the studied cities. In
the case of Thessaloniki and London, moderate increases in
modal share have been observed as well, yet cycling infrastruc-
ture still needs to be improved.
Four of the five studied cities, (Antwerp, London, Nantes and
Seville) explicitly present cycling as part of their respective
air quality plans. To be most effective at improving air quality
local authorities should focus on encouraging modal shift
from private motorised transport to cycling in order to reduce
road-traffic pollution, rather than promoting cycling per se.
Overall the reduction in traffic levels brought about by cycling
measures, and other mode shift initiatives, will generate
reductions in emissions and ambient concentrations of pollut-
ants, and ultimately provides a benefit to human health.
The degree to which these air quality benefits will become evi-
dent is a function of the level of modal shift as well as the spe-
cific characteristics of the city including existing traffic flows,
fleet composition, meteorology and urban topology. Therefore
the benefit of any package of cycling measures will vary from
city to city, dependent on its local situation. However, in all five
of the case study cities mode shift to cycling on its own was
unlikely to be sufficient to achieve to air quality objectives,
although it did generate air quality related and wider health
benefits.
The key actors in developing cycling as part of the solution to
urban air quality are the city authorities and they need to:
• Promote measures that shift residents from private motor-
ised transport to cycling, rather than promoting cycling per
se, to ensure that air quality benefits are generated;
• Integrate cycling measures as part of a wider mode shift
package with a combination of ‘pull’ measures to directly
attract car users and ‘push’ measure to more generally dis-
courage car use;
• Complement cycling and other mode shift measures with
technical measures to reduce the emissions from the remain-
ing traffic such as public transport and delivery vehicles.
In addition there are further co-benefits of cycling regarding
health (through physical activity), climate change, noise,
human rights (access to mobility for all parts of society/popu-
lation) and economy (congestion-easing, improving travel-time
reliability) and all these co-benefits should be taken into
account when authorities discuss investments in cycling from
the point of view of air pollution.
Thus in summary, from an air quality management point of
view, cycling should continue to be part of air quality plans
that aim to tackle air pollution at the urban scale. However
they must be part of a package of measures directed at reduc-
ing overall road traffic, to ensure that the associated emissions
benefits and air quality improvements are generated. These
air quality improvements will in turn give rise to numerous
societal co-benefits. However the extent of the air quality im-
provements will vary from city to city and across the city itself
with our analysis showing changes at the selected monitoring
locations in N02 concentrations from zero to 12.6 pg/m3 and
changes in PMio concentrations from 0.3 pg/m3 to 1.4 pg/m3.
Although overall the changes in London and Thessaloniki were
not enough to meet the European limit values. This suggests
that mode shift measures alone are unlikely to be sufficient
to meet the European air quality limit values in urban areas.
Therefore, a successful approach to combat air pollution is a
combination of both non-technical and technical measures:
encourage a modal shift, including the shift towards cycling,
and reduce emissions from the remaining traffic such as public
transport and delivery vehicles.
Cycling and Urban Air Quality: A study of European Experiences
_______RICARDO-AEA 31
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